Bonifazi, Anna, Annemieke Drummen, and Mark de Kreij. 2016. Particles in Ancient Greek Discourse: Exploring Particle Use across Genres. Hellenic Studies Series 79. Washington, DC: Center for Hellenic Studies. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:hul.ebook:CHS_BonifaziA_DrummenA_deKreijM.Particles_in_Ancient_Greek_Discourse.2016.
I.5 Particle frequencies in Homer, Pindar, Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, Herodotus, and Thucydides
We started our investigation by looking at the following frequencies. They concern the “core” items of a list inherited by previous scholarship, and the frequencies relate to the authors of our corpus.
All numbers are as given by the TLG. All frequencies are in percentages of all words. All texts include fragments, if these are available in the TLG.
- ἀλλά
- ἄρα
- ἀτάρ
- αὖ
- αὐτάρ
- αὖτε
- γάρ
- γε
- δέ
- δή
- δῆτα
- ἦ
- καί
- καίτοι
- μέν
- μέντοι
- μήν (μάν)
- οὖν (ὦν)
- περ
- που (κου)
- τε
- τοι
- τοίνυν
1. ἀλλά
Counted: ἀλλ᾽, ἀλλά.
Homer: 1430 instances in 203,242 words: frequency of 0.70%.
Pindar: 114 instances in 31,112 words: frequency of 0.37%.
Aeschylus: 293 instances in 93,249 words: frequency of 0.31%.
Sophocles: 680 instances in 80,062 words: frequency of 0.85%.
Euripides: 1076 instances in 193,904 words: frequency of 0.55%.
Aristophanes: 1260 instances in 119,562 words: frequency of 1.05%.
Herodotus: 512 instances in 189,489 words: frequency of 0.27%.
Thucydides: 484 instances in 153,260 words: frequency of 0.32%.
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| ἀλλά | 0.7 | 0.37 | 0.31 | 0.85 | 0.55 | 1.05 | 0.27 | 0.32 |
2. ἄρα
Counted: ἄρ, ἄρ᾽, ἄρα, ῥα, ῥά, ῥ᾽.
Homer: 1836 / 203,242 = 0.90%
Pindar: 30 / 31,112 = 0.096
Aeschylus: 26 / 93,249 = 0.028
Sophocles: 46 / 80,062 = 0.057
Euripides: 135 / 193,904 = 0.070
Aristophanes: 156 / 119,562 = 0.130
Herodotus: 67 / 189,489 = 0.035
Thucydides: 40 / 153,260 = 0.026
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| ἄρα | 0.9 | 0.096 | 0.028 | 0.057 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.035 | 0.026 |
3. ἀτάρ
Homer: 130 / 203,242 = 0.064%
Pindar: 6 / 31,112 = 0.019
Aeschylus: 4 / 93,249 = 0.0043
Sophocles: 3 / 80,062 = 0.0037
Euripides: 36 / 193,904 = 0.019
Aristophanes: 47 / 119,562 = 0.039
Herodotus: 14 / 189,489 = 0.0074
Thucydides: 0
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| ἀτάρ | 0.064 | 0.019 | 0.0043 | 0.0037 | 0.019 | 0.039 | 0.0074 | 0 |
4. αὖ
Homer: 168 / 203,242 = 0.083%
Pindar: 7 / 31,112 = 0.022
Aeschylus: 42 / 93,249 = 0.045
Sophocles: 69 / 80,062 = 0.086
Euripides: 132 / 193,904 = 0.068
Aristophanes: 138 / 119,562 = 0.115
Herodotus: 138 / 189,489 = 0.073
Thucydides: 42 / 153,260 = 0.027
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| αὖ | 0.083 | 0.022 | 0.045 | 0.086 | 0.068 | 0.115 | 0.073 | 0.027 |
5. αὐτάρ
Homer: 770 / 203,242 = 0.379%
Pindar: 0
Aeschylus: 0
Sophocles: 0
Euripides: 0
Aristophanes: 2 / 119,562 = 0.0017
Herodotus: 0
Thucydides: 0
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| αὐτάρ | 0.379 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0.0017 | 0 | 0 |
6. αὖτε
Counted: αὖθ’, αὖτ’ and αὖτε.
Homer: 367 / 203,242 = 0.181%
Pindar: 5 / 31,112 = 0.016
Aeschylus: 15 / 93,249 = 0.016
Sophocles: 2 / 80,062 = 0.002
Euripides: 4 / 193,904 = 0.002
Aristophanes: 4 / 119,562 = 0.003
Herodotus: 0
Thucydides: 0
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| αὖτε | 0.181 | 0.016 | 0.016 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.003 | 0 | 0 |
7. γάρ
Homer: 1405 / 203,242 = 0.69%
Pindar: 193 / 31,112 = 0.62
Aeschylus: 743 / 93,249 = 0.80
Sophocles: 1019 / 80,062 = 1.27
Euripides: 2350 / 193,904 = 1.21
Aristophanes: 1373 / 119,562 = 1.15
Herodotus: 1479 / 189,489 = 0.78
Thucydides: 1116 / 153,260 = 0.73
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| γάρ | 0.69 | 0.62 | 0.8 | 1.27 | 1.21 | 1.15 | 0.78 | 0.73 |
8. γε
Counted: γ᾽, γε, γέ, γά, γα, ἔγωγ(ε), ἔμοιγ(ε).
Homer: 1107 / 203,242 = 0.54%
Pindar: 43 / 31,112 = 0.14
Aeschylus: 176 / 93,249 = 0.19
Sophocles: 478 / 80,062 = 0.60
Euripides: 888 / 193,904 = 0.46
Aristophanes: 1283 / 119,562 = 1.07
Herodotus: 257 / 189,489 = 0.14
Thucydides: 186 / 153,260 = 0.12
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| γε | 0.54 | 0.14 | 0.19 | 0.6 | 0.46 | 1.07 | 0.14 | 0.12 |
9. δέ
Counted: δ᾽, δέ.
Homer: 10966 / 203,242 = 5.40%
Pindar: 1129 / 31,112 = 3.63
Aeschylus: 2545 / 93,249 = 2.73
Sophocles: 1655 / 80,062 = 2.07
Euripides: 6181 / 193,904 = 3.19
Aristophanes: 2203 / 119,562 = 1.84
Herodotus: 8040 / 189,489 = 4.24
Thucydides: 4512 / 153,260 = 2.94
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| δέ | 5.4 | 3.63 | 2.73 | 2.07 | 3.19 | 1.84 | 4.24 | 2.94 |
10. δή
Homer: 971 / 203,242 = 0.48%
Pindar: 23 / 31,112 = 0.07
Aeschylus: 136 / 93,249 = 0.15
Sophocles: 217 / 80,062 = 0.27
Euripides: 427 / 193,904 = 0.22
Aristophanes: 395 / 119,562 = 0.33
Herodotus: 1395 / 189,489 = 0.74
Thucydides: 201 / 153,260 = 0.13
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| δή | 0.48 | 0.07 | 0.15 | 0.27 | 0.22 | 0.33 | 0.74 | 0.13 |
11. δῆτα
Counted: δῆθ’, δῆτ’, δῆτα.
Homer: 0
Pindar: 0
Aeschylus: 33 / 93,249 = 0.012%
Sophocles: 102 / 80,062 = 0.054
Euripides: 167 / 193,904 = 0.050
Aristophanes: 242 / 119,562 = 0.079
Herodotus: 5 / 189,489 = 0.0026
Thucydides: 1 / 153,260 = 0.00065
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| δῆτα | 0 | 0 | 0.035 | 0.127 | 0.086 | 0.202 | 0.0026 | 0.00065 |
12. ἦ
Homer: 609 / 203,242 = 0.30%
Pindar: 14 / 31,112 = 0.045
Aeschylus: 70 / 93,249 = 0.075
Sophocles: 133 / 80,062 = 0.17
Euripides: 184 / 193,904 = 0.095
Aristophanes: 89 / 119,562 = 0.074
Herodotus: 14 / 189,489 = 0.0074
Thucydides: 13 / 153,260 = 0.0085
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| ἦ | 0.3 | 0.045 | 0.075 | 0.17 | 0.095 | 0.074 | 0.0074 | 0.0085 |
13. καί
Counted: καί, και, κἀγω, κἀγώ, κἄγωγ(ε), κἀκ, κἀκεῖ, κἀκεῖθεν, κἀκεῖν(…), κἀκεῖσ(ε), κἄλλ(…), κἀμ(έ), κἀμαυτ(…), κἀμοί, κἄμοιγ(ε), κἀμ(…), κἀν, κἄν, κἀξ, κἀπ(ί), κἄπειθ’, κἄπειτ(α), κἀπό.
Homer: 5287 / 203,242 = 2.60 % (no crasis forms)
Pindar: 601 / 31,112 = 1.93 (very few crasis forms)
Aeschylus: 2150 / 93,249 = 2.31 (many crasis forms)
Sophocles: 1531 / 80,062 = 1.91 (many crasis forms)
Euripides: 3635 / 193,904 = 1.87 (many crasis forms)
Aristophanes: 3418 / 119,562 = 2.86 (many crasis forms)
Herodotus: 7628 / 189,489 = 4.03 (some crasis forms)
Thucydides: 10283 / 153,260 = 6.71 (some crasis forms)
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| καί | 2.6 | 1.93 | 2.31 | 1.91 | 1.87 | 2.86 | 4.03 | 6.71 |
14. καίτοι
Homer: 0
Pindar: 0
Aeschylus: 9 / 93,249 = 0.0097%
Sophocles: 22 / 80,062 = 0.027
Euripides: 34 / 193,904 = 0.018
Aristophanes: 41 / 119,562 = 0.034
Herodotus: 18 / 189,489 = 0.0095
Thucydides: 24 / 153,260 = 0.016
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| καίτοι | 0 | 0 | 0.0097 | 0.027 | 0.018 | 0.034 | 0.0095 | 0.016 |
15. μέν
Homer: 1869 / 203,242 = 0.92%
Pindar: 237 / 31,112 = 0.76
Aeschylus: 430 / 93,249 = 0.46
Sophocles: 522 / 80,062 = 0.65
Euripides: 1278 / 193,904 = 0.66
Aristophanes: 624 / 119,562 = 0.52
Herodotus: 2549 / 189,489 = 1.35
Thucydides: 1777 / 153,260 = 1.16
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| μέν | 0.92 | 0.76 | 0.46 | 0.65 | 0.66 | 0.52 | 1.35 | 1.16 |
16. μέντοι
Homer: 0
Pindar: 0
Aeschylus: 29 / 93,249 = 0.031%
Sophocles: 26 / 80,062 = 0.032
Euripides: 41 / 193,904 = 0.021
Aristophanes: 60 / 119,562 = 0.050
Herodotus: 115 / 189,489 = 0.061
Thucydides: 69 / 153,260 = 0.045
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| μέντοι | 0 | 0 | 0.031 | 0.032 | 0.021 | 0.05 | 0.061 | 0.045 |
17. μήν
Counted: μήν, μάν.
Homer: 34 / 203,242 = 0.017%
Pindar: 32 / 31,112 = 0.10
Aeschylus: 62 / 93,249 = 0.066
Sophocles: 53 / 80,062 = 0.066
Euripides: 135 / 193,904 = 0.070
Aristophanes: 136 / 119,562 = 0.11
Herodotus: 0
Thucydides: 20 / 153,260 = 0.013
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| μήν | 0.017 | 0.1 | 0.066 | 0.066 | 0.07 | 0.11 | 0 | 0.013 |
18. οὖν
Counted: οὖν; in Herodotus ὦν; in Pindar οὖν + ὦν.
Homer: 84 / 203,242 = 0.041%
Pindar: 15 / 31,112 = 0.048
Aeschylus: 100 / 93,249 = 0.11
Sophocles: 123 / 80,062 = 0.15
Euripides: 293 / 193,904 = 0.15
Aristophanes: 301 / 119,562 = 0.25
Herodotus: 452 / 189,489 = 0.24
Thucydides: 243 / 153,260 = 0.16
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| οὖν | 0.041 | 0.048 | 0.11 | 0.15 | 0.15 | 0.25 | 0.24 | 0.16 |
19. περ
Counted: περ, πέρ,αἴπερ, ἐάνπερ, εἴπερ, ἐπεί(δή)περ, ἕωσπερ, ἤνπερ, ἵναπερ, κἄνπερ, κεἴπερ, ὅπωσπερ, ὅτεπερ, ὅτιπερ, χὤτανπερ, [relative]περ.
Homer: 534 / 203,242 = 0.26%
Pindar: 15 / 31,112 = 0.048
Aeschylus: 97 / 93,249 = 0.10
Sophocles: 123 / 80,062 = 0.15
Euripides: 199 / 193,904 = 0.10
Aristophanes: 227 / 119,562 = 0.19
Herodotus: 252 / 189,489 = 0.13
Thucydides: 258 / 153,260 = 0.17
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| περ | 0.26 | 0.048 | 0.1 | 0.15 | 0.1 | 0.19 | 0.13 | 0.17 |
20. που
Counted: που, πού, κου, κού, and for Herodotus also κω, κώ.
Homer: 162 / 203,242 = 0.080%
Pindar: 5 / 31,112 = 0.016
Aeschylus: 28 / 93,249 = 0.030
Sophocles: 55 / 80,062 = 0.069
Euripides: 61 / 193,904 = 0.031
Aristophanes: 68 / 119,562 = 0.057
Herodotus: 89 / 189,489 = 0.047
Thucydides: 49 / 153,260 = 0.032
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| που | 0.08 | 0.016 | 0.03 | 0.069 | 0.031 | 0.057 | 0.047 | 0.032 |
21. τε
Counted: τ᾽, τε, τέ, θ᾽.
Homer: 4117 / 203,242 = 2.01%
Pindar: 657 / 31,112 = 2.11
Aeschylus: 793 / 93,249 = 0.85
Sophocles: 715 / 80,062 = 0.89
Euripides: 2637 / 193,904 = 1.36
Aristophanes: 690 / 119,562 = 0.58
Herodotus: 2786 / 189,489 = 1.47
Thucydides: 2615 / 153,260 = 1.70
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| τε | 2.01 | 2.11 | 0.85 | 0.89 | 1.36 | 0.58 | 1.47 | 1.7 |
22. τοι
Counted: τοι, τοί. This form is not only a particle, but can also represent a personal pronoun.
Homer: 942 / 203,242 = 0.463%
Pindar: 75 / 31,112 = 0.241
Aeschylus: 116 / 93,249 = 0.124
Sophocles: 93 / 80,062 = 0.116
Euripides: 152 / 193,904 = 0.078
Aristophanes: 104 / 119,562 = 0.087
Herodotus: 185 / 189,489 = 0.098
Thucydides: 12 / 153,260 = 0.0078
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| τοι | 0.463 | 0.241 | 0.124 | 0.116 | 0.078 | 0.087 | 0.098 | 0.0078 |
23. τοίνυν
Homer: 0
Pindar: 2 / 31,112 = 0.0064%
Aeschylus: 9 / 93,249 = 0.0097
Sophocles: 8 / 80,062 = 0.010
Euripides: 6 / 193,904 = 0.0031
Aristophanes: 82 / 119,562 = 0.069
Herodotus: 22 / 189,489 = 0.012
Thucydides: 5 / 153,260 = 0.0033
| Hom | Pind | Aesch | Soph | Eur | Ar | Hdt | Thu | |
| τοίνυν | 0 | 0.0064 | 0.0097 | 0.01 | 0.0031 | 0.069 | 0.012 | 0.0033 |